Orthognathic Surgery: Past, Present and Perspectives for the future (PART IV)
Lazaridis Nikolaos1, Chatziantoniou Georgios2, Lazaridis Constantinos3, Tilaveridis Ioannis4
Laboratory of Oral Maxillofacial Surgery, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
DOI: 10.54936/haoms263133146
SUMMARY: Orthognathic surgery encompasses a broad spectrum of surgical procedures aimed at correcting dentofacial anomalies. It provides the opportunity to address jaw disharmonies and improve functions such as chewing, speech, swallowing, and breathing. Additionally, it contributes to the relief of musculofascial pain in the face, enhances the functioning of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ), and improves facial aesthetics. Today, orthognathic surgery has evolved into one of the most «influential» subspecialties within Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.
A historical journey into the development of orthognathic surgery should undoubtedly focus on the surgeons who performed, introduced, or associated their names with various orthognathic surgery procedures. Describing the development of different surgical techniques with chronological precision is not always a simple task. The majority of orthognathic surgery procedures for repositioning–i.e., repositioning the upper or lower jaw, or both simultaneously–based on the treatment plans devised by both the surgeon and orthodontist, were often conducted nearly simultaneously by surgeons from both sides of the Atlantic (USA and Europe).
Through this article, we attempt to embark on a historical journey of 180 years, emphasizing chronological milestones, pioneering surgeons, and intertemporal surgical techniques that have left their mark on the evolution of orthognathic surgery.
We define as past of orthognathic surgery the period from 1849, the year of Hullihen’s first surgical procedure in the USA, until 1957, when Obwegeser published his sagittal ramus split osteotomy of the mandible in Europe.
The present of orthognathic surgery spans from 1957 to the present day. This period has been dominated by the remarkable presence of the “father of orthognathic surgery,” Professor Obwegeser. In parallel, especially in recent years, with the rapid advancement of technology, we have seen the emergence of significant digital techniques (e.g., CAD/CAM) that facilitate the work of surgeons.
As for the future of orthognathic surgery, technology will play an even more crucial role in its evolution, developing new opportunities and possibilities in this field.
KEY WORDS: Orthognathic surgery, sagittal ramus osteotomy, bilateral osteotomy, Le Fort osteotomy, segmental osteotomies.
REFERENCES
1. Sauerbier S, Schön R, Otten JE, Schmelzeisen R, Gutwald R. The development of plate osteosynthesis for the treatment of fractures of the mandibular body - a literature review. J Craniomaxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2008 Jul [cited 2025 Jan 9];36(5):251–9. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18448348/
2. Soerensen J, Warnekros L. Befestigung von Goldschienen unter dem Periost. Chirurg u. Zahnarzt, Heft Berlin: Springer. 1917;
3. Spiessl B. [Osteosynthesis in sagittal osteotomy using the Obwegeser-Dal Pont method]. Fortschr Kiefer Gesichtschir. 1974;18:145–8.
4. Luhr HG. The impression osteosynthesis of mandibular fracture in dogs. A histological contribution to “primary bone healing.” Eur Sur Res. 1967;1:3.
5. Luhr HG. [On the stable osteosynthesis in mandibular fractures]. Dtsch Zahnarztl Z. 1968 Jul;23(7):754.
6. Luhr HG. Indications for use of a microsystem for internal fixation in craniofacial surgery. J Craniofac Surg [Internet]. 1990 [cited 2025 Jan 9];1(1):35–52. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2088562/
7. Michelet FX, Deymes J, Dessus B. Osteosynthesis with miniaturized screwed plates in maxillo-facial surgery. J Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 1973 [cited 2025 Jan 9];1(2):79–84. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4520558/
8. Champy M, Lodde JP. [Mandibular synthesis. Placement of the synthesis as a function of mandibular stress]. Rev Stomatol Chir Maxillofac. 1976 Dec;77(8):971–6.
9. Luhr HG. [Stable fixation of maxillofacial fractures by means of mini-compression plates]. Dtsch Zahnarztl Z. 1979 Nov;34(11):851.
10. Steinäuser EW. Bone screws and plates in orthognathic surgery. Int J Oral Surg [Internet]. 1982 [cited 2025 Jan9];11(4):209–16. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6815109/
11. Τηλαβερίδης Ιωάννης, Μαγγούδη Δόξα, Λαζαρίδης Νικόλαος, Καρακάσης Δημήτριος. Επιπλοκές των σταθερών πλακών αποκατάστασης της κάτω γνάθου τύπου ΑΟ: Κλινική μελέτη. Ελλ Π Στομ Γναθοπροσωπ Χειρ. 1999;
12. Καρακάσης Δημήτριος, Λαζαρίδης Νικόλαος. Στοματική και Γναθοπροσωπική Χειρουργική. Vol. 3. Θεσσαλονίκη; 2010.
13. Jeter TS, Van Sickels JE, Dolwick MF. Modified techniques for internal fixation of sagittal ramus osteotomies. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 1984 [cited 2025 Jan 9];42(4):270–2. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6584575/
14. Van Sickels JE, Jeter TS, Theriot BA. Management of an unfavorable lingual fracture during a sagittal split osteotomy. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 1985 [cited 2025 Jan 9];43(10):808–9. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3862783/
15. Van Sickels JE, Jeter TD, Aragon SB. Rigid fixation of maxillary osteotomies: a preliminary report and technique article. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol [Internet]. 1985 [cited 2025 Jan 9];60(3):262–5. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3862037/
16. Suuronen R. Biodegradable fracture-fixation devices in maxillofacial surgery. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1993 Feb 1;22(1):50–7.
17. Suuronen R, Laine P, Pohjonen T, Lindqvist C. Sagittal ramus osteotomies fixed with biodegradable screws: a preliminary report. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 1994 [cited 2025 Jan 9];52(7):715–20. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8006735/
18. Landes CA, Ballon A. Skeletal stability in bimaxillary orthognathic surgery: P(L/DL)LA-resorbable versus titanium osteofixation. Plast Reconstr Surg [Internet]. 2006 Sep [cited 2025 Jan 9];118(3):703–21. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16932182/
19. Turvey TA, Bell RB, Phillips C, Proffit WR. Self-Reinforced Biodegradable Screw Fixation Compared With Titanium Screw Fixation in Mandibular Advancement. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2006 Jan [cited 2025 Jan 9];64(1):40. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3558282/
20. Blakey GH, Rossouw E, Turvey TA, Phillips C, Proffit WR, White RP. Are bioresorbable polylactate devices comparable to titanium devices for stabilizing Le Fort I advancement? Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2014 Apr [cited 2025 Jan 9];43(4):437–44. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24268358/
21. Suuronen R, Haers PE, Lindqvist C, Sailer HF. Update on bioresorbable plates in maxillofacial surgery. Facial Plast Surg [Internet]. 1999 [cited 2025 Jan 9];15(1):61–72. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11816099/
22. Turvey TA, Proffit WP, Phillips C. Biodegradable fixation for craniomaxillofacial surgery: a 10-year experience involving 761 operations and 745 patients. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2011 Mar [cited 2025 Jan 9];40(3):244–9. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21185695/
23. Walker GF. A new approach to the analysis of craniofacial morphology and growth. Am J Orthod [Internet]. 1972 [cited 2025 Jan 9];61(3):221–30. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4501181/
24. Eisenfeld J, Barker DR, Mishelevich DJ. Iconic representation of the human face with computer graphics. ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics. 1974;8(3):9–15.
25. Eisenfeld J, Mishelevich DJ. Computer-based research studies on the correction of dentofacial deformities. Surgical correction of dentofacial deformities. 1980;2:1731–41.
26. Xia J, Ip HH, Samman N, Wang D, Kot CS, Yeung RW, et al. Computer-assisted three-dimensional surgical planning and simulation: 3D virtual osteotomy. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2000 Feb;29(1):11–7.
27. Gateno J, Xia JJ, Teichgraeber JF, Christensen AM, Lemoine JJ,Liebschner MAK, et al. Clinical feasibility of computer-aided surgical simulation (CASS) in the treatment of complex cranio-maxillofacial deformities. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2007 Apr [cited 2025 Jan 9];65(4):728–34. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17368370/
28. Swennen GRJ, Barth EL, Eulzer C, Schutyser F. The use of a new 3D splint and double CT scan procedure to obtain an accurate anatomic virtual augmented model of the skull. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2007 Feb [cited 2025 Jan 9];36(2):146–52. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17208409/
29. Lin HH, Lonic D, Lo LJ. 3D printing in orthognathic surgery - A literature review. J Formos Med Assoc [Internet]. 2018 Jul 1 [cited 2025 Jan 9];117(7):547–58. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29398097/
30. Farrell BB, Franco PB, Tucker MR. Virtual surgical planning in orthognathic surgery. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2025 Jan 9];26(4):459–73. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25246324/
31. Miloro M, Ghali GE, Larsen PE, Waite P. Peterson’s Principles of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. 4th ed. Peterson’s Principles of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Fourth Edition. Springer International Publishing; 2022. 1–2328 p.
32. Polley JW, Figueroa AA. Orthognathic positioning system: intraoperative system to transfer virtual surgical plan to operating field during orthognathic surgery. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2013 May [cited 2025 Jan 9];71(5):911–20. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23312847/
33. Troulis M. Endoscopically assisted mandibular osteotomies. In: Fonseca RJ, Walker RB, Betts NJ, editors. Oral and maxillofacial surgery. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2005.
34. Ilizarov GA. The tension-stress effect on the genesis and growth of tissues. Part I. The influence of stability of fixation and soft-tissue preservation. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1989 Jan;(238):249–81.
35. Ilizarov GA. The tension-stress effect on the genesis and growth of tissues: Part II. The influence of the rate and frequency of distraction. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1989 Feb;(239):263–85.
36. Ilizarov GA. Transosseous Osteosynthesis. Transosseous Osteosynthesis. Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 1992.
37. Snyder CC, Levine GA, Swasson HM, Browne EZ. Mandibular lengthening by gradual distraction. Preliminary report. Plast Reconstr Surg [Internet]. 1973 [cited 2025 Jan 9];51(5):506–8. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4701234/
38. McCarthy JG, others. Distraction of the craniofacial skeleton. Springer; 1999.
39. Molina F, Ortiz Monasterio F. Mandibular elongation and remodeling by distraction: a farewell to major osteotomies. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1995 Sep;96(4):825–40; discussion 841-2.
40. Karakasis D, Lazaridis N, Dimitrakopoulos I, Venetis G. The vector of growth during mandibular distraction with intraoral devices. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1999;(28):12.
41. Waite PD, Wooten V, Lachner J, Guyette RF. Maxillomandibular advancement surgery in 23 patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 1989 [cited 2025 Jan 9];47(12):1256–61. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2585177/
42. Riley RW, Powell NB, Li KK, Troell RJ, Guilleminault C. Surgery and obstructive sleep apnea: long-term clinical outcomes. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg [Internet]. 2000 Mar [cited 2025 Jan 9];122(3):415–21. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10699820/
43. Prinsell JR. Primary and Secondary Telegnathic Maxillomandibular Advancement, With or Without Adjunctive Procedures, for Obstructive Sleep Apnea in Adults: A Literature Review and Treatment Recommendations. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. 2012 Jul;70(7):1659–77.
44. Boyd SB, Walters AS, Song Y, Wang L. Comparative effectiveness of maxillomandibular advancement and uvulopalatopharyngoplasty for the treatment of moderate to severe obstructive sleep apnea. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2013 Apr [cited 2025 Jan 9];71(4):743–51. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23219145/
45. Pinney J, Metcalfe AD. Sir Archibald McIndoe and the Guinea Pig Club. PMFA News. 2014;1:21–4.
46. Naini FB. Psychological ramifications of facial deformities. Facial Aesthetics: Concepts & Clinical Diagnosis. 2011;
47. Thompson N. John Marquis Converse 1909?1981. Chirurgia Plastica. 1981;6(2):149–51.
48. Kiyak HA, Hohl T, Sherrick P, West RA, McNeill RW, Bucher F. Sex differences in motives for and outcomes of orthognathic surgery. J Oral Surg. 1981 Oct;39(10):757–64.
49. Kiyak HA, Hohl T, West RA, McNeill RW. Psychologic changes in orthognathic surgery patients: a 24-month follow up. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 1984 [cited 2025 Jan 9];42(8):506–12. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6588168/
50. Kiyak HA, McNeill RW, West RA. The emotional impact of orthognathic surgery and conventional orthodontics. Am J Orthod [Internet]. 1985 [cited 2025 Jan 9];88(3):224–34. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3862345/
51. Jacobson A. Psychological aspects of dentofacial esthetics and orthognathic surgery. Angle Orthod. 1984 Jan;54(1):18–35.
52. Phillips C, Broder HL, Bennett ME. Dentofacial disharmony: motivations for seeking treatment. Int J Adult Orthodon Orthognath Surg. 1997;12(1):7–15.
53. Phillips C, Bennett ME, Broder HL. Dentofacial disharmony: psychological status of patients seeking treatment consultation. Angle Orthod. 1998 Dec;68(6):547–56.
54. Phillips C. Psychological ramifications of orthognathic surgery. Oral and naxillofacial surgery. 2000;2:506–34.
Laboratory of Oral Maxillofacial Surgery, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
DOI: 10.54936/haoms263133146
SUMMARY: Orthognathic surgery encompasses a broad spectrum of surgical procedures aimed at correcting dentofacial anomalies. It provides the opportunity to address jaw disharmonies and improve functions such as chewing, speech, swallowing, and breathing. Additionally, it contributes to the relief of musculofascial pain in the face, enhances the functioning of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ), and improves facial aesthetics. Today, orthognathic surgery has evolved into one of the most «influential» subspecialties within Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.
A historical journey into the development of orthognathic surgery should undoubtedly focus on the surgeons who performed, introduced, or associated their names with various orthognathic surgery procedures. Describing the development of different surgical techniques with chronological precision is not always a simple task. The majority of orthognathic surgery procedures for repositioning–i.e., repositioning the upper or lower jaw, or both simultaneously–based on the treatment plans devised by both the surgeon and orthodontist, were often conducted nearly simultaneously by surgeons from both sides of the Atlantic (USA and Europe).
Through this article, we attempt to embark on a historical journey of 180 years, emphasizing chronological milestones, pioneering surgeons, and intertemporal surgical techniques that have left their mark on the evolution of orthognathic surgery.
We define as past of orthognathic surgery the period from 1849, the year of Hullihen’s first surgical procedure in the USA, until 1957, when Obwegeser published his sagittal ramus split osteotomy of the mandible in Europe.
The present of orthognathic surgery spans from 1957 to the present day. This period has been dominated by the remarkable presence of the “father of orthognathic surgery,” Professor Obwegeser. In parallel, especially in recent years, with the rapid advancement of technology, we have seen the emergence of significant digital techniques (e.g., CAD/CAM) that facilitate the work of surgeons.
As for the future of orthognathic surgery, technology will play an even more crucial role in its evolution, developing new opportunities and possibilities in this field.
KEY WORDS: Orthognathic surgery, sagittal ramus osteotomy, bilateral osteotomy, Le Fort osteotomy, segmental osteotomies.
REFERENCES
1. Sauerbier S, Schön R, Otten JE, Schmelzeisen R, Gutwald R. The development of plate osteosynthesis for the treatment of fractures of the mandibular body - a literature review. J Craniomaxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2008 Jul [cited 2025 Jan 9];36(5):251–9. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18448348/
2. Soerensen J, Warnekros L. Befestigung von Goldschienen unter dem Periost. Chirurg u. Zahnarzt, Heft Berlin: Springer. 1917;
3. Spiessl B. [Osteosynthesis in sagittal osteotomy using the Obwegeser-Dal Pont method]. Fortschr Kiefer Gesichtschir. 1974;18:145–8.
4. Luhr HG. The impression osteosynthesis of mandibular fracture in dogs. A histological contribution to “primary bone healing.” Eur Sur Res. 1967;1:3.
5. Luhr HG. [On the stable osteosynthesis in mandibular fractures]. Dtsch Zahnarztl Z. 1968 Jul;23(7):754.
6. Luhr HG. Indications for use of a microsystem for internal fixation in craniofacial surgery. J Craniofac Surg [Internet]. 1990 [cited 2025 Jan 9];1(1):35–52. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2088562/
7. Michelet FX, Deymes J, Dessus B. Osteosynthesis with miniaturized screwed plates in maxillo-facial surgery. J Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 1973 [cited 2025 Jan 9];1(2):79–84. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4520558/
8. Champy M, Lodde JP. [Mandibular synthesis. Placement of the synthesis as a function of mandibular stress]. Rev Stomatol Chir Maxillofac. 1976 Dec;77(8):971–6.
9. Luhr HG. [Stable fixation of maxillofacial fractures by means of mini-compression plates]. Dtsch Zahnarztl Z. 1979 Nov;34(11):851.
10. Steinäuser EW. Bone screws and plates in orthognathic surgery. Int J Oral Surg [Internet]. 1982 [cited 2025 Jan9];11(4):209–16. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6815109/
11. Τηλαβερίδης Ιωάννης, Μαγγούδη Δόξα, Λαζαρίδης Νικόλαος, Καρακάσης Δημήτριος. Επιπλοκές των σταθερών πλακών αποκατάστασης της κάτω γνάθου τύπου ΑΟ: Κλινική μελέτη. Ελλ Π Στομ Γναθοπροσωπ Χειρ. 1999;
12. Καρακάσης Δημήτριος, Λαζαρίδης Νικόλαος. Στοματική και Γναθοπροσωπική Χειρουργική. Vol. 3. Θεσσαλονίκη; 2010.
13. Jeter TS, Van Sickels JE, Dolwick MF. Modified techniques for internal fixation of sagittal ramus osteotomies. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 1984 [cited 2025 Jan 9];42(4):270–2. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6584575/
14. Van Sickels JE, Jeter TS, Theriot BA. Management of an unfavorable lingual fracture during a sagittal split osteotomy. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 1985 [cited 2025 Jan 9];43(10):808–9. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3862783/
15. Van Sickels JE, Jeter TD, Aragon SB. Rigid fixation of maxillary osteotomies: a preliminary report and technique article. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol [Internet]. 1985 [cited 2025 Jan 9];60(3):262–5. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3862037/
16. Suuronen R. Biodegradable fracture-fixation devices in maxillofacial surgery. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1993 Feb 1;22(1):50–7.
17. Suuronen R, Laine P, Pohjonen T, Lindqvist C. Sagittal ramus osteotomies fixed with biodegradable screws: a preliminary report. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 1994 [cited 2025 Jan 9];52(7):715–20. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8006735/
18. Landes CA, Ballon A. Skeletal stability in bimaxillary orthognathic surgery: P(L/DL)LA-resorbable versus titanium osteofixation. Plast Reconstr Surg [Internet]. 2006 Sep [cited 2025 Jan 9];118(3):703–21. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16932182/
19. Turvey TA, Bell RB, Phillips C, Proffit WR. Self-Reinforced Biodegradable Screw Fixation Compared With Titanium Screw Fixation in Mandibular Advancement. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2006 Jan [cited 2025 Jan 9];64(1):40. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3558282/
20. Blakey GH, Rossouw E, Turvey TA, Phillips C, Proffit WR, White RP. Are bioresorbable polylactate devices comparable to titanium devices for stabilizing Le Fort I advancement? Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2014 Apr [cited 2025 Jan 9];43(4):437–44. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24268358/
21. Suuronen R, Haers PE, Lindqvist C, Sailer HF. Update on bioresorbable plates in maxillofacial surgery. Facial Plast Surg [Internet]. 1999 [cited 2025 Jan 9];15(1):61–72. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11816099/
22. Turvey TA, Proffit WP, Phillips C. Biodegradable fixation for craniomaxillofacial surgery: a 10-year experience involving 761 operations and 745 patients. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2011 Mar [cited 2025 Jan 9];40(3):244–9. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21185695/
23. Walker GF. A new approach to the analysis of craniofacial morphology and growth. Am J Orthod [Internet]. 1972 [cited 2025 Jan 9];61(3):221–30. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4501181/
24. Eisenfeld J, Barker DR, Mishelevich DJ. Iconic representation of the human face with computer graphics. ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics. 1974;8(3):9–15.
25. Eisenfeld J, Mishelevich DJ. Computer-based research studies on the correction of dentofacial deformities. Surgical correction of dentofacial deformities. 1980;2:1731–41.
26. Xia J, Ip HH, Samman N, Wang D, Kot CS, Yeung RW, et al. Computer-assisted three-dimensional surgical planning and simulation: 3D virtual osteotomy. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2000 Feb;29(1):11–7.
27. Gateno J, Xia JJ, Teichgraeber JF, Christensen AM, Lemoine JJ,Liebschner MAK, et al. Clinical feasibility of computer-aided surgical simulation (CASS) in the treatment of complex cranio-maxillofacial deformities. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2007 Apr [cited 2025 Jan 9];65(4):728–34. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17368370/
28. Swennen GRJ, Barth EL, Eulzer C, Schutyser F. The use of a new 3D splint and double CT scan procedure to obtain an accurate anatomic virtual augmented model of the skull. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2007 Feb [cited 2025 Jan 9];36(2):146–52. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17208409/
29. Lin HH, Lonic D, Lo LJ. 3D printing in orthognathic surgery - A literature review. J Formos Med Assoc [Internet]. 2018 Jul 1 [cited 2025 Jan 9];117(7):547–58. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29398097/
30. Farrell BB, Franco PB, Tucker MR. Virtual surgical planning in orthognathic surgery. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2025 Jan 9];26(4):459–73. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25246324/
31. Miloro M, Ghali GE, Larsen PE, Waite P. Peterson’s Principles of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. 4th ed. Peterson’s Principles of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Fourth Edition. Springer International Publishing; 2022. 1–2328 p.
32. Polley JW, Figueroa AA. Orthognathic positioning system: intraoperative system to transfer virtual surgical plan to operating field during orthognathic surgery. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2013 May [cited 2025 Jan 9];71(5):911–20. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23312847/
33. Troulis M. Endoscopically assisted mandibular osteotomies. In: Fonseca RJ, Walker RB, Betts NJ, editors. Oral and maxillofacial surgery. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2005.
34. Ilizarov GA. The tension-stress effect on the genesis and growth of tissues. Part I. The influence of stability of fixation and soft-tissue preservation. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1989 Jan;(238):249–81.
35. Ilizarov GA. The tension-stress effect on the genesis and growth of tissues: Part II. The influence of the rate and frequency of distraction. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1989 Feb;(239):263–85.
36. Ilizarov GA. Transosseous Osteosynthesis. Transosseous Osteosynthesis. Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 1992.
37. Snyder CC, Levine GA, Swasson HM, Browne EZ. Mandibular lengthening by gradual distraction. Preliminary report. Plast Reconstr Surg [Internet]. 1973 [cited 2025 Jan 9];51(5):506–8. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4701234/
38. McCarthy JG, others. Distraction of the craniofacial skeleton. Springer; 1999.
39. Molina F, Ortiz Monasterio F. Mandibular elongation and remodeling by distraction: a farewell to major osteotomies. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1995 Sep;96(4):825–40; discussion 841-2.
40. Karakasis D, Lazaridis N, Dimitrakopoulos I, Venetis G. The vector of growth during mandibular distraction with intraoral devices. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1999;(28):12.
41. Waite PD, Wooten V, Lachner J, Guyette RF. Maxillomandibular advancement surgery in 23 patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 1989 [cited 2025 Jan 9];47(12):1256–61. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2585177/
42. Riley RW, Powell NB, Li KK, Troell RJ, Guilleminault C. Surgery and obstructive sleep apnea: long-term clinical outcomes. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg [Internet]. 2000 Mar [cited 2025 Jan 9];122(3):415–21. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10699820/
43. Prinsell JR. Primary and Secondary Telegnathic Maxillomandibular Advancement, With or Without Adjunctive Procedures, for Obstructive Sleep Apnea in Adults: A Literature Review and Treatment Recommendations. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. 2012 Jul;70(7):1659–77.
44. Boyd SB, Walters AS, Song Y, Wang L. Comparative effectiveness of maxillomandibular advancement and uvulopalatopharyngoplasty for the treatment of moderate to severe obstructive sleep apnea. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2013 Apr [cited 2025 Jan 9];71(4):743–51. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23219145/
45. Pinney J, Metcalfe AD. Sir Archibald McIndoe and the Guinea Pig Club. PMFA News. 2014;1:21–4.
46. Naini FB. Psychological ramifications of facial deformities. Facial Aesthetics: Concepts & Clinical Diagnosis. 2011;
47. Thompson N. John Marquis Converse 1909?1981. Chirurgia Plastica. 1981;6(2):149–51.
48. Kiyak HA, Hohl T, Sherrick P, West RA, McNeill RW, Bucher F. Sex differences in motives for and outcomes of orthognathic surgery. J Oral Surg. 1981 Oct;39(10):757–64.
49. Kiyak HA, Hohl T, West RA, McNeill RW. Psychologic changes in orthognathic surgery patients: a 24-month follow up. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 1984 [cited 2025 Jan 9];42(8):506–12. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6588168/
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